Principles of Psychology Psychology 100 Powerpoint Presentation

Principles of Psychology Psychology 100

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Principles of Psychology Psychology 100 University of Michigan-Flint Thomas A. Wrobel, Ph.D. Spring 2003

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Chapter One Psychology: The Study of Mental Processes and Behavior

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I. Biopsychology Biopsychology seeks to understand the mind through understanding the biological activity of the brain Localization of function is the notion that discrete brain regions control discrete aspects of mental functioning Lesions of neural pathways alter behavior in animal studies Humans with focal brain damage show evidence of impairment of language Broca noted that damage to the left front hemisphere impairs the ability to speak language

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Damage to Broca’s area produces difficulty in speaking Damage to Wernicke’s area results in difficulty in language comprehension

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Cultural Influences and Psychology Culture refers to the influence of membership in a larger group such as a tribe or nation A society is not simply the summation of the individuals that make up the society Rather, culture impacts psychological functioning of individuals within the society

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Philosophical Issues of Psychology Free will versus determinism? Nature versus nurture? Rationalism versus empiricism? Reason versus emotion? Continuity versus discontinuity with other animals? Individualism versus relationality? Conscious versus unconscious? Mental versus physical

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Early Psychological Science Wilhelm Wundt: Proponent of structuralism Established the first psychological laboratory Wundt used the method of introspection to examine mental processes Observers were trained to provide verbal reports of their psychological processes Wundt sought to define the structure of consciousness William James: Proponent of functionalism Functionalism argued that consciousness is functional and serves a purpose

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II.Perspectives in Psychology Any psychological issue can be approached using a number of perspectives

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Psychodynamic Perspective The psychodynamic view posits that conscious and unconscious forces interact to control our thoughts and behaviors Behavior is an interplay between thoughts, feelings, and wishes Some mental events are unconscious Mental processes can conflict, resulting in anxiety

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Behaviorist Perspective Behaviorist view is that learning plays a role in acquiring and maintaining behaviors Conditioning in which stimuli are associated Restaurant is paired with bad news that leads to anxiety Pairing of novel flavor with illness leads to taste aversion Conditioning in which behaviors have consequences: Positive consequences are reinforcing Negative consequences are punishing

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Cognitive Perspective The Cognitive view focuses on how people process, store, and retrieve information

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Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary view: Human behaviors evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce Animals and humans share common behaviors Behaviors are biological determined Impulse to eat Sexual impulses Aggressive behavior in males Caring for ones offspring Sociobiology: Natural selection operates on psychological functions as well as physical functions

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Contributions of the Psychological Perspectives Psychodynamic Focus on unconscious process and on conflict Behavioral Focus on learning Behaviors can be modified by consequences Cognitive Focus on thought and memory Evolutionary Focus on why we feel, think, or behave

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Major Subdisciplines of Psychology Biopsychology Developmental Social Clinical Industrial/Organizational Educational Experimental Health

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Chapter Two Research Methods in Psychology

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I. Characteristics of Good Psychological Research

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Research Concepts Theory refers to a systematic way of organizing observations Hypotheses are proposed relations between variables (cause-effect relationships) Variable: Any phenomenon that can vary along some dimension Continuous variable: varies continuously (body weight) Categorical variable: can take on fixed values (gender)

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Generalizability of Research Research studies take samples from a limited portion of the entire population (sampling must be representative). Generalizability refers to whether your research results can be applied to the entire population of interest, and requires: Internal validity: Are the procedures of the study sound or are they flawed? External validity: Does the experimental situation resemble the situation found in the real world?

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Measurement Issues in Research Measure: A concrete means by which to determine the value of a variable The variable “illness” can be defined as the number of times that a subject visits a clinic The variable “hunger” can be defined in terms of how long a subject has gone without food Measures of variables must be: Reliable: Produce consistent measurements Valid: Actually measure the variable of interest

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Assessing Reliability Test-retest reliability: Does the test give similar values if the same subject takes it two or more times? Internal consistency: Different items that measure the same variable should produce similar answers. Inter-rater reliability: Two testers that rate the same person on the same variable should give similar ratings to the subject

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Issues in Validity Do the measures used in a study actually tap the appropriate variable? Valid measures should allow for prediction of behavior Measure of depression: Does it predict risk for suicide in the future? Measure of intellect (IQ): Does it predict future school performance? Validation research attempts to relate the measure to an objective criterion

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II. Experimental Research .

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The Logic of Experimentation Experiments ask whether systematic variation in one variable produces variation in another variable Independent variable (IV): Manipulated by experimenter Dependent variable (DV): Participants response Example: Does exposure to THC increase appetite? IV: THC dose (0 or 5 mg) DV: Amount of food consumed in 30 minutes

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Experimental Research Control group: A group that is similar to the experimental group, except that it has not been exposed to the treatment (i.e given a placebo treatment rather than THC) Bias: Variation associated with subject expectancies, experimenter expectancies Placebo treatments can be used to handle subject expectancies Double-blind studies control both subject and experimenter expectancies

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Limits of Experimental Research Complex real-world issues are not be easily studied in the laboratory E.g. prejudice, racism Lab studies may have problems in external validity

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III. Descriptive Research The descriptive approach seeks to describe phenomena rather than to manipulate variables Methods of descriptive research: Case studies Naturalistic observation Survey research .

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Case Studies A case study is an in-depth study of the behavior of one person or a small group Used when large numbers of subjects are not available Often used in clinical research Freud’s case study approach Drawbacks include Small sample size (limit to generalizability) Susceptibility to researcher bias

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Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation refers to the in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting Examples include: Study of primate behavior in the wild Piaget’s study of the cognitive development of his own children Advantage: Naturalistic studies have good generalizability Disadvantages: Observation per se can alter behavior Observational technique cannot infer the cause(s) of behavior

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Survey Research Survey technique asks questions of large numbers of persons to gain information on attitudes and behavior Two approaches: Questionnaires are paper and pencil devices Interviews are done in person or by telephone Disadvantages of survey approach: Sampling issues People may not respond accurately

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IV. Correlational Research Aim of the correlational approach is to determine the degree to which 2 or more variables are related Correlations can determine association between data from experiments, case studies, or surveys Calculate the correlation coefficient (r) Values range from -1 through 0 through +1 Negative correlations: High values of one variable are associated with low values of the other variable Correlational studies do NOT establish causality

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The Correlation Coefficient

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V. Researching the Brain Brain imaging techniques allow us to look for brain damage or to assess the activity of discrete brain regions CAT and MRI scans produce a static picture of brain structures MRI can be used to detect tumors Brain ventricle size: Large ventricles are associated with brain damage PET scans: Radioactive tracers are used to map brain regions for high and low activity

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VI. Evaluating Research

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Chapter Three Biological Bases of Mental Life and Behavior

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I. Neurons: Basic Units of the Nervous System Neurons are cells that specialize in the transfer of information within the nervous system Three classes of neurons: Sensory: Transmit information from sensory receptors to the brain (afferent) Motor: Transmit commands from the brain to the muscles and glands of the body (efferent) Interneurons: Interconnect neurons

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Anatomy of the Neuron Dendrites: receive information from other neurons Cell body: creates transmitter molecules Axon Myelin insulates the nerve cell, speeds up conduction of nerve messages Terminal buttons of the axon release transmitter

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Firing of a Neuron: Neuron Resting Potentials The membrane of the neuron separates charges The ions NA+ and Cl- are found outside the membrane, whereas the ion K+ is mostly inside the membrane The membrane is slightly permeable to K+ ions, so that at rest, the inside is about -70 millivolts relative to the outside At rest, few NA+ ions are able to cross the membrane NA+ K+ Cl- Cross-section of nerve cell showing distribution of ions across the membrane INSIDE

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Firing of a Neuron: Graded Potentials Stimulation of the nerve membrane can open ion channels in the membrane NA+ ions flowing in will depolarize the membrane (movement from -70 mV to say -60 mV K+ ions flowing out of membrane will hyperpolarize the membrane (-70 mV to say -90 mV)

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Firing of a Neuron: The Action Potential If the summated activity at the axon hillock raises the membrane potential past threshold, an action potential (AP) will occur During the AP, NA+ ions flow into the cell raising the membrane potential to +40 mV, producing the spike The restoration of the membrane potential to -70 mV is produced by an opening of channels to K+ The AP is conducted along the axon toward the terminals

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Overview of the Action Potential NA ions in K ions out

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Transmission of Information Between Cells: The Synapse

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Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters (NTs) are chemicals NTs are stored within vesicles of the presynaptic cell NTs are released in response to the action potential sweeping along the presynaptic membrane Transmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to postsynaptic receptors Receptor binding opens or closes ion channels: NA channel opening: Depolarizes the membrane K+ channel opening: Hyperpolarizes the membrane

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II. The Endocrine System Endocrine glands release hormones into blood stream Have effects at diffuse target sites throughout the body Hormones bind to receptors Hormones can have organizational effects (permanent change in structure and function) Hormones can have activational effects: Lack of testosterone lack reduces sexual behavior .

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Overview of the Nervous System

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III. Peripheral Nervous System: Autonomic Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) has two divisions: Sympathetic: Emergency system Parasympathetic: Vegetative functions (e.g. digestion) The two systems often act in opposition (as in the control of heart rate) Can act in concert (as in the control of sexual reflexes)

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Autonomic Nervous System .

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IV. The Central Nervous System: Development of the Brain

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IV. The Central Nervous System: The Spinal Cord

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IV. The Central Nervous System Medulla: Controls heart rate, respiration Cerebellum: Coordinates smooth movements, balance, and posture Pons: Involved in the control of sleep

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IV. The Central Nervous System: Limbic System Septal area is involved in pleasure and in relief from pain Amygdala is involved in learning and recognition of fear Hippocampus is involved in memory Patient H.M. shows anterograde amnesia (cannot learn new information)

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IV. The Central Nervous System: Cerebral Cortex Functions of cerebral cortex: Provides for flexible control of patterns of movement Permits subtle discrimination among complex sensory patterns Makes possible symbolic thinking Symbolic thought is the foundation of human thought and language Functional organization of cortex: Primary areas Association areas

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IV. The Central Nervous System: Cortical Lobes

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IV. The Central Nervous System: Cerebral Lateralization The structures of the cortex and sub-cortex appear to specialize in function: Hemispheric Specialization Left hemisphere is dominant for language, logic, and complex motor behavior. Right hemisphere is dominant for non-linguistic functions including recognition of faces, places, and sounds (music) The hemispheric specializations are evident from studies of Damage to one hemisphere (I.e. Broca’s area) Split-brain subjects

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The Split-Brain Study Information from the one visual field is usually transmitted to the opposite visual cortex The corpus callosum serves to integrate the two hemispheres Cutting the corpus callosum can result in information reaching only one hemisphere Language is a left-hemisphere function Information reaching the left hemisphere will be reported by the subject, but not information reaching the right hemisphere .

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Split-Brain Studies (Figure adapted from Gazzaniga, 1967)

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V. Brain, Gene, Behavior Behavioral genetics is concerned with the influence of genes on psychological function Genotype: Genetic structure (DNA located on chromosomes) Phenotype: Observable psychological function Relatedness is the probability of sharing a gene with parents and others Heritability: Quantifies the extent to which variations in a trait across persons can be accounted for by genetic variation

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Chapter Four Sensation and Perception

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I. Basic Principles Sensation is the process by which the body gathers information about the environment Perception is the process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information Sensation and perception are akin to two sides of the same coin Perception is an active process Ambiguous figures give rise to different perceptions

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I. Basic Principles Three principles emerge with regard to sensation and perception: There is not a one-one correspondence between physical and psychological reality Sensation and perception are active processes Sensation and perception are adaptive

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II. Sensing the Environment Sensory receptors Translate physical stimulation into neural signals (“transduction” process) Detect physical energy (e.g. light, sound waves) Each system has a minimum amount of energy required to activate the system (termed the threshold) Sensation involves decision making Sensory systems are sensitive to changes in stimulation level

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II. Sensing the Environment: Thresholds Sensory receptors are tuned to a particular form of energy Auditory receptors in the ear code for sound pressure changes, not for light Sensory systems require a minimum amount of energy for activation (absolute threshold) Just-noticeable difference (JND): The minimum difference in stimulation that is just noticeable Weber noted that the JND is a fraction of the original stimulus intensity: the fraction is different for different senses

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II. Sensing the Environment Difference Thresholds: A. Weber’s Law: D I / I = k B. Fechner’s Law: Sensation = k log I C. Steven’s Power Law S = k Ib

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II. Sensing the Environment Weber’s Law

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ROC Curves

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III. Vision: The Nature of Light

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III. Vision: The Human Eye

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III. Vision: The Retina Photoreceptors Light Impulses produced by light

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III. Vision: Transduction Light travels through the retina to impinge on photoreceptors at the back of the eye Light bleaches a pigment contained within the photoreceptors: Bleaching leads to a graded receptor potential that eventually produces an action potential in the ganglion cell Two types of photoreceptors Cones: found in center of retina (fovea) and are sensitive to fine detail and color Rods: found in periphery of retina and are sensitive to movement but not fine detail

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III. Vision: Receptive Fields Receptive field: That aspect of the external world that produces a change in firing rate of a given sensory cell Insert a microelectrode into a retinal ganglion cell: then record potentials as various stimuli are shown onto the cell Center-surround shape

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Fig. 4.9

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Fig. 4.10

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Fig. 4.13

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Visual Pathways in Brain: “Where” versus “What”

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III. Vision: Perception of Color Color is a psychological perception Three dimensions of color: Hue is the apparent color of an object (blue) Brightness is the intensity of a color Saturation is the purity of the color Three different types of cones are found in the eye Each is sensitive to different wavelengths of light S-cones: blue M-cones: green L-cones: red

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Retinal Cones Absorb Different Wavelengths of Light

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III. Vision: Color Vision Theories Young-Helmholtz: Color is explained by differential activation of 3 color elements in eye Could not account for negative color afterimages Hering: Opponent-Process Theory Colors are derived from activity of 3 antagonistic systems Black-white Red-green Blue-yellow

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IV. Hearing The nature of sound Frequency Complexity Amplitude

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IV. Hearing The Ear Transduction a. The Middle Ear b. The Inner Ear c. Sensing Pitch B. Neural Pathways

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V. Other Senses Taste Skin Senses a. Pahntom Limbs b. Transducting Pressure, Temperature and Pain

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Skin Senses Receptors are localized within the skin to detect physical stimuli in the outside world Three classes of skin receptors: Touch: physical contact of objects with the skin Temperature of objects Pain: destruction of skin tissue

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Skin Receptors

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Pain Pain is a source of information that relates to tissue destruction Force Heat Chemical Pain is a adaptive to a degree (motivates behaviors to terminate the source of the pain) Pain is influenced by Cultural beliefs Emotional states Exogenous drugs (opiates) Internal transmitters (endorphins)

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VI. Perception: Gestalt Principles A: Similarity B: Proximity C: Good Continuation D: Simplicity E: Closure

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VI. Perception: Monocular Depth Cues Interposition: One object blocks another Linear perspective: Parallel lines converge in the distance Texture gradient: Texture of distant objects appears to be finer rather than coarser Shading: 3D objects cast shadows Aerial Perspective: Far objects are fuzzy Familiar size: Familiar objects that appear small are inferred to be distant Relative size: When looking at 2 objects of known similar size, the smaller is seen as further away

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VI. Perception: Motion Visual system is wired to detect motion Rods in retina are sensitive to motion Neurons in visual cortex respond to motion Two systems for processing movement: A: eye is stationary as object moves B: eye moves to maintain object at same place on the retina; muscle signals are used to infer movement

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VI. Perception: Linear Perspective as a Depth Cue

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VI. Perception: Constancy Color: Tendency to perceive object color as stable even under conditions of changing illumination Shape: We recognize an object as having the same shape although we may view it in a different angle, at a different distance... Size: Objects do not differ in size when viewed from different distances

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Chapter Five Learning

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I. Learning Learning refers to an enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience Distinct from Drug effects (caffeine-induced jitters are not learning) Fatigue or illness Three assumptions of learning theories Responses are learned rather than innate Learning is adaptive Our experiments can uncover the laws of learning These laws will apply to animals and to humans

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II. Classical Conditioning The Russian physiologist Pavlov noted that reflexive salivation in dogs could be elicited by stimuli associated with feeding Reflex: Response that is reliably elicited by a stimulus Food elicits salivation Air puff elicits eye blink Reflexive stimulus and response are unconditioned Neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS) CS is paired with the UCS over many trials Eventually comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR: resembles the UCR)

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II. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiment

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II. Classical Conditioning Conditioned Taste Aversion If a flavor is followed by an illness experience, animals will avoid the flavor in the future CS + UCS ----------> UCR Taste Toxic event Nausea CS -----> CR Flavor Nausea

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Are These Examples of Classical Conditioning? A man listening to the radio feels a rush when he hears a song that was popular when he was using cocaine... A cat runs into the kitchen when the can opener is turning... A war veteran dives to the street upon hearing a car backfire... The smell of a steak produces salivation... A student feels nauseated when entering a classroom in which they earlier took a difficult exam

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II. Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization/Discrimination Generalization: If a response is conditioned to one stimulus, the organism may also respond to a similar stimulus, but not to a dissimilar stimulus (discrimination) Hovland study: CS + UCS ----------> UCR Tone Shock Pain CS alone produced changes in GSR (associated with anxiety)

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II. Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization (Figure adapted from Hovland, 1937) Stimuli that are similar to the training CS elicit similar magnitude responses

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II. Classical Conditioning Acquisition and Extinction Acquisition of classical conditioning: Repeated pairings of CS and UCS Extinction: Refers to the weakening of conditioning evident when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS Spontaneous recovery: Refers to the reemergence of a previously extinguished CR

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II. Classical Conditioning Issues Temporal order of presentation of CS and UCS is important Best conditioning: CS precedes UCS (forward) Worst conditioning: UCS precedes CS (backward)

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II. Classical Conditioning Issues Interstimulus interval (ISI) between CS and UCS is important for conditioning ISI’s longer than 2 sec produce poor conditioning Prior conditioning history is important Latent Inhibition: Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus alone (no UCS) makes it more difficult to use the stimulus as a CS in the future Familiar ice cream taste is less likely to produce a CTA than a novel flavor Blocking is the failure of a stimulus (light) to elicit a CR (salivation) when it is combined with a stimulus (bell) that already elicits the response (UCS is food)

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II. Classical Conditioning Biological Preparedness: The Garcia Experiment, Rats (Figure adapted from Garcia & Koelling, 1966) Some associations are more easily learned than others

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III. Operant Conditioning Law of Effect: Behavior is controlled by its consequences Thorndike experiment: Hungry cat learned to pull a string in order to leave a box and eat food from a bowl placed just outside the box Operant conditioning and instrumental conditioning: Responses operate on the environment and are instrumental in receiving reward

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III. Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement Reinforcer: An environmental stimulus that occurs after the response and increases the likelihood that the response will occur in the future Positive reinforcement: Process by which presentation of a stimulus after a response makes the response more likely to occur in the future Negative reinforcement: Termination of an aversive event makes a behavior more likely to occur in the future

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III. Operant Conditioning Negative reinforcement involves a situation in which a response that terminates an aversive stimulus will strengthen that response Taking an aspirin will reduce the headache and strengthen the behavior of aspirin-taking (sometimes referred to as escape-learning) Avoidance learning: A response prevents a potentially aversive event from occurring Child cleans his room to avoid parental nagging

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III. Operant Conditioning Punishment decreases the likelihood that a response will occur Examples of punishing situations Presentation of an aversive stimulus (Positive) Parent spanks a child for taking candy... Owner swats a dog who has chewed her slippers... Removal of a reward (Negative) Teenager who stays out past curfew is not allowed to drive the family car for 2 weeks... Husband who forgets anniversary sleeps on couch for a week...

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Difficulties in Punishment Learner may not understand which operant behavior is being punished Learner may come to fear the teacher, rather than learn an association between the action and punishment (then avoids the teacher) Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behavior Using punishment when the teacher is angry Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression

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III. Operant Conditioning Extinction: The elimination of reinforcement Extinction Bursting Spontaneous Recovery

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Overview Of Conditioning

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III. Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcer is obtained for every response Intermittent schedules: Reinforcer is not obtained for every response Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio: Every Nth response Variable Ratio: The average is every Nth response Interval Schedules: Fixed Interval: After the elapse of N minutes Variable Interval: On average, after N minutes

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Impact of Schedules of Reinforcement on Behavior

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III. Operant Conditioning Discriminative Stimuli Shaping Chaining Species Specific Behavior

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IV. Cognitive-Social Theory Learning and Cognition Latent Learning Conditioning and Cognition Insight in Animals Expectancies Learned Helplessness Social Learning: Observational Learning, Modeling, Vicarious Conditioning

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Chapter Six Memory

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I. Memory and Information Processing Memory is the process by which we observe, store, and recall information Memories may be visual, auditory, or tactile Memory processes may involve multiple systems Conscious Automatic

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I. Memory and Information Processing Mental Representations: A mental model of a stimulus or category of stimuli Sensory representations Image of a dog Sound of a gun shot Verbal representations Concept of “Freedom” Involve neural activation different from that of sensory representation Motoric representations Memories of motor actions Swinging a tennis racket

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I. Memory and Information Processing

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I. Memory and Information Processing This metaphor views the “the mind as a computer” Model assumes that memory consists of 3 stores: Sensory registers Iconic (visual) Echoic (auditory) Short-term memory (STM) Long-term memory (LTM)

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I. Memory and Information Processing: Short Term Memory STM is a variant of memory that is of limited duration: Information in STM fades after 20-30 seconds (without rehearsal) STM has limited capacity storage STM capacity is about 7 items of information Capacity is constant across cultures STM Involves rehearsal Maintenance: information is repeated Elaborative: information is related to other knowledge

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I. Memory and Information Processing: Long Term Memory LTM refers to the representations of facts, images, actions, and skills that may persist over a lifetime LTM involves retrieval of information LTM is theoretically limitless in capacity The serial position curve supports the existence of STM versus LTM Primacy effect reflects LTM Recency effect reflects STM

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The Serial Position Curve . (Figure adapted from Atkinson & Shriffrin, 1968)

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III. Working Memory Working memory is temporary storage and processing of information used to solve problems respond to environmental demands achieve goals Working memory may consist of three modules Visual Memory Store Verbal Memory Store Central Executive

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III. Working Memory Visual memory store A temporary image (20-30 sec) that provides information about the location and nature of objects Verbal memory store Involves storage of verbal items Limited capacity Shallow: Items are processed in order of presentation and are subject to interference Working memory stores are independent Brain damage may alter visual but not verbal

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IV. Varieties of Long-Term Memory Evidence supporting a distinction between working memory and LTM Working memory is easily accessed, but is limited in capacity Neurological studies in which brain damage impairs memory LTM impairment: person shows normal working memory, but cannot transfer information to LTM Working memory deficit: person has a memory span of 2 digits, but normal LTM Chunking: LTM information is used to increase item size in working memory (e.g. IBM, USC, CIA)

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IV. Varieties of Long-Term Memory Declarative memory Semantic: “generic” knowledge of facts Episodic: memories of specific events Autobiographical Procedural memory: for skills Explicit memory: Conscious retrieval of information Recall versus recognition Implicit memory: Skills, conditioned learning, and associative memory

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IV. Varieties of Long-Term Memory

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V. Encoding and Organization of Long-Term Memory Storage of information in LTM requires encoding as a function of meaning Match between encoding and accessibility Levels of processing: Notion that encoding can be Shallow: the physical aspects of the stimulus Deep: the meaning of the stimulus

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V. Encoding and Organization of Long-Term Memory Encoding specificity principle: Idea that ease of retrieval of a memory depends on match of encoding with retrieval Poor recall if shallow learning is examined using a deep processing technique Student who reads multiple choice items in test book and then takes an essay exam will likely not do very well Spacing of learning is important Spaced learning leads to better recall of information Figure adapted from Herrmann et al., 1992)

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V. Encoding and Organization of Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices add additional cues for retrieval to enhance memory Method of Loci The contents of a physical location that you are familiar with is linked to the items you want to recall Peg Method Imagery is combined with a verbal rhyme “One is a bun” (imagine a quart of milk in a bun…) SQ3R Method Survey, question, read, recite and review

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V. Encoding and Organization of Long-Term Memory LTM is organized in clusters of information that are related in meaning The network is composed of interconnected nodes A node may contain thoughts, images, smells, emotions, or any other information Mnemonic devices allow one to add concepts to existing networks

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An Example of Interconnected Nodes

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VI. Remembering, Forgetting Forgetting refers to the inability to recall previously learned information Ebbinghaus documented the rate of forgetting of information Initial rate of forgetting is high and then trails off...

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VI. Remembering, Forgetting Memory is subject to errors and biases Memory can be primed Study in which subjects were presented with a list (slumber, nap, bed) of words that were related to the word “sleep” Most subjects recalled the word sleep even though that word had not been presented to them Memory is altered by emotional factors Study of recall of high school grades Students misremembered their D’s but recalled their A’s

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“Seven Sins of Memory” Memories are transient (fade with time) We do not remember what we do not pay attention to Our memories can be temporarily blocked We can misattribute the source of memory We are suggestible in our memories We can show memory distortion (bias) We often fail to forget the things we would like not to recall (persistence of memory)

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VI. Remembering, Forgetting Decay theory Memory is like a fading neural trace that is weakened with disuse Interference theory: conflict between new and old memories Proactive: old memories interfere with recall of new information Retroactive: new memories interfere with recall of old information Motivated forgetting implies that forgetting can avoid painful memories

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Chapter Seven Thought and Language

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I. Thought Thought is an extension of perception and memory We form mental representations We recall representations using memory We mentally manipulate the representations to achieve some purpose Thinking can involve words or images

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I. Units of Thought Objects are classified on the basis of their properties Categories: natural groupings based on common properties Concept: a mental representation of a category “Cat”: small, hairy, and independent creature

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I. Units of Thought Categorization involves recognizing an object as a member of a category We categorize objects by Comparison with defining features Clearly defined (salt) vs “fuzzy” (“honest”) Similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes Prototypes are a model based on abstraction of the characteristics of the category Can be a visual shape or verbal characteristics Categories are organized in hierarchies Basic level to subordinate level

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I. Units of Thought

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II. Reasoning Inductive: reason from specific observations to general propositions Deductive: drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions The conclusion is true if the premises are true Syllogism is a set of formal statements used in deductive reasoning. Comprised of 2 premises and a conclusion

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Problem solving refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal Problems vary by definition: Well-defined versus ill-defined Strategies of problem solving: Algorithms are systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a problem Hypothesis testing: make an educated guess about a problem; then test it Mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem II. Reasoning

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II. Reasoning: Impediments Functional fixedness: our tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses E.g. the candle and box problem Confirmation bias: we seek to confirm what we already believe This form of bias may be a difficulty for “experts” in a field

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III. Implicit and Everyday Thought Implicit thinking examines unconscious thought processes (as opposed to conscious or explicit thought) Examples of implicit thought include: Classical conditioning of motivation We avoid persons who resemble others who have been obnoxious toward us Unconscious psychodynamic motives Notion that children seek persons who have the characteristics of their parents

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III. Implicit and Everyday Thought:Heuristics Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that allow us to make decisions (may border on irrational) Representative heuristic: we match an object to its category, but don’t process how likely the match is Availability heuristic: we decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical “Driving to Grandma’s house is safer than flying to Iraq…”

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IV. Language A language is a system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination that allows for communication among humans Phonemes: the smallest units of sound Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning Phrases are composed of morphemes Sentences: strings of morphemes and phrases that express a thought or intention

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IV. Language: Syntactic Sentence Analysis

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IV. Language Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication includes: vocal intonation body language (crossed arms) gestures (often involving the hands or fingers) physical distance facial expressions touch

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IV. Language Language Development The case for nurture: B.F. Skinner argued that children imitate the utterances of their parents Skinner suggests that children receive differential reinforcement for speech sounds The case for nature: Chomksy argued that language acquisition appears to be universal across culture (could not be accounted for by learning) Language acquisition device

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IV. Language: Critical Periods for Language Acquisition Critical periods assume that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all Children easily learn second languages, adults have great difficulty Isolated children have language impairments: Genie: was isolated as a child and was unable to learn complex language as an adolescent

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Chapter 8 Intelligence

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I. Intelligence(s) Multiple definitions of intelligence: Expressed in different domains The absent-minded professor Intelligence is functional Directed at solving problems Intelligence is defined and shaped by culture “What intelligence tests measure…”

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II. Intelligence Testing Psychometric approach: devise tests to measure a person’s cognitive level relative to others in a population First popularized by Sir Francis Galton Mass testing at an exposition Galton devised correlation procedure to examine relation between simple measures of intelligence Simple measures of intelligence did not correlate with social class Binet and Simon devised a test to measure intellectual development in children Devised “mental age” concept”: MA = average age at which children achieve an actual score

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II. Inteligence Testing: The Intelligence Quotient To allow for comparison of test scores among persons, L. Terman devised the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ): IQ = (MA/CA) x 100 MA = mental age CA = chronological age

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II. Intelligence Testing Group Tests: Army Alpha and Beta Wechsler Intelligence Scales WAIS-III, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale WISC-III, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

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. II. Intelligence Testing (Figure adapted from Anastasi & Urbina, 1997) Frequency Distribution of IQ Scores

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Mental Retardation Sub-average intellectual and adaptive functioning is termed mental retardation (IQ score less than 70) Causes of retardation include: Genetic disorder: Down syndrome (extra 21st chromosome) Environmental issues Damage incurred during birth process Head injury In utero exposure to alcohol or cocaine

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II. Intelligence Testing Validity Issues for IQ Tests: IQ test scores predict ability to succeed in school (valid use) IQ tests are often criticized because of: Minimal theoretical basis (no underlying construct was used to devise tests) Cultural bias Scores depend on language, cultural experiences Immigrants from Europe were deemed mental defectives because they had poor test scores Tests were administered in English to non-English-speaking immigrants…..

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III. Approaches to Intelligence Psychometric approach: statistical techniques are used to define intellectual skills and abilities Information-processing: examine mental processes Multiple intelligences: notion that intelligence is a function of multiple systems

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III. Approaches to Intelligence: Factor Analysis Statistical approach in which test items are examined using factor analysis Looks for items that correlate together (are a common factor) How many factors? Thurstone: one common factor “g” Spearman: two factors: “g” for general intelligence “s” for specific intelligence

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III. Approaches to Intelligence Fluid: Refers to mental processes rather than specific information (declines with age) Crystallized: a persons knowledge base (increases with age) (Figure adapted from J. Horn & J. Knoll , 1997, p. 72)

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III. Approaches to Intelligence Information-Processing Examines the processes that underlie intelligent behavior Speed of processing: how rapidly a person can perform a mental task Is a strong correlate of IQ scores Knowledge base: persons with a strong knowledge base in an area are better able to perform a mental task Ability to apply mental processes: can a person acquire and use new mental strategies?

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III. Approaches to Intelligence: Information-Processing

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III. Approaches to Intelligence: Multiple Intelligences Gardner argues for at least 7 different intelligences Musical Bodily/kinesthetic Spatial Verbal Logical/mathematical Intra-personal Social

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III. Approaches to Intelligence: Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner notes that mental abilities appear to be independent: Brain damage alters one mental ability, but not others Savants have differing levels of intelligence There are differing courses of development of abilities Mozart could write music before he could read...

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IV. Heredity and Intelligence What are the factors that influence IQ? Environmental: factors such as parental education, mental status, nutrition Risk factors are associated with reduced IQ scores Genetic: notion that intelligence can be inherited . (Figure adapted from Sameroff et al., 1993, p. 89)

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IV. Heredity and Intelligence Heritability of IQ Asks whether genetic variation can explain variation in IQ scores Research strategies: Twin studies: compare IQ scores in MZ and DZ twins Adoption studies: compare similarity of IQ scores of adopted children with adopted family and with biological family Results suggest a heavy influence of genetics on individual IQ scores

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IV. Heredity and Intelligence Race and IQ Issue: although there is a heavy genetic component for individual IQ scores, is there a similar genetic component that would explain group differences in IQ scores? Is the 15 point average difference in IQ scores between US blacks and whites a genetic or environmental issue? Nutritional issues Economic deprivation (adoption study) No relation between ancestry and IQ scores

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Chapter Ten Motivation

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Motivation refers to the moving force that energizes behavior Direction or goal of motives Strength of motives Motives reflect Biological needs Psychosocial needs

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Evolutionary Perspective Instincts in Humans? Evolutionary perspective argues that motivational systems can contribute to reproductive success Evolution selects for animals that maximize their inclusive fitness (their own reproductive success plus that of close relatives) Recall that close relatives share similar genes Pheromones may serve as a cue to identifying close relatives Crickets spend more time in a territory marked with the scent of a close relative .

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Psychodynamic Perspective Freud argued for two fundamental motives: Sex Aggression Subsequent psychodynamic theorists argue for Need for relatedness to others Need for self-esteem

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Unconscious Motivation Freud argued that a person can be unaware of their own motives for their behaviors Motivation can be unconscious and conscious at the same time Unconscious motivation can be assessed using projective tests in which a person is asked to describe a vague stimulus The idea is that their verbal descriptions of the scene will reflect their motivations (ego defense mechanism of projection)

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I. Perspectives on Motivation ProjectiveTests A subject might be asked: What is happening in the scene to the right? What is she thinking now? What would you be saying if you were the person in the middle?

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Behaviorist Perspective Behaviors are governed by stimuli in the environment Needs reflect a requirement such as food and water Drives are states of arousal that accompany an unfulfilled need Primary Drives: Hunger, Thirst Secondary Drives are learned Drive reduction theory argues that we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce drives

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Cognitive Perspective Goals refer to positive outcomes that are established by social learning Finding a mate Goal Setting Theory: goals regulate behavior Note that this view of motivation relies on conscious processing rather than unconscious processing Feedback about progress toward the goal is key to motivating performance

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Cognitive Perspective Intrinsic Motivation Self-determination Theory Competence Autonomy Relatedness to Others

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I. Perspectives on Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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II. Eating: Homeostasis Homeostasis: refers to the tendency of the body to maintain constancy of the internal environment Core body temperature is defended Increased core temperature leads to sweating Decreased core temperature leads to shivering Behavior can serve as part of the homeostatic process Blood sugar levels dip--> we eat Core body temperature goes up, we take off a layer of clothes and look for iced tea….

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II. Eating: Eating Food supplies energy as well as minerals and vitamins Ingestion of food leads to a sequence of metabolic events: Absorptive phase: food is ingested, energy is extracted and stored as either glycogen or fat Fasting phase: glycogen is converted to glucose for use by the body

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II. Eating: Overview of Metabolism

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II. Eating: Overview of Metabolism Set-Point Feedback Mechanism Corrective Mechanism

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II. Eating: Turn Ons and Turn Offs Hypothalamus receives information regarding nutrient levels in body Lateral region Stimulation induces eating Lesions of the lateral region produce starvation Ventromedial region Lesions induce overeating Stimulation inhibits eating

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II. Eating: Glucostatic Theory Glucostat measures the level of glucose in blood Periphery: Liver glucoreceptors Brain: Hypothalamic glucoreceptors Manipulations of glucose level alters eating Injections of glucose into blood at the start of a meal will delay the meal Reducing the level of glucose in blood will intensify hunger

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II. Eating: Impact of Glucose Inhibition (Figure adapted from Thompson & Campbell, 1977)

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II. Eating: Non-Physiological Factors Food palatability can alter eating Positive flavors can enhance eating Aversive flavors can suppress eating Quinine added to food reduces eating Food variety: exposure to the same food day after day can diminish intake Presence of others: meal size increases as the group size increases

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II. Eating: Obesity Obesity defined as weight that is 15% above ideal Risks of obesity Physical Heart disease, diabetes, or stroke Early mortality Psychological Negative stereotypes about the obese Basis for discrimination in jobs and housing Difficulty in relationships

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Causes of Obesity Biological Obesity is heritable (twin studies) Fat cell size and number may play a role in obesity Homeostasis: the body defends its level of fat Leptin is secreted by fat cells: reduces appetite and weight Leptin may be the hormone that serves to reduce appetite when body fat level exceeds some threshold Environmental Rapid increases in prevalence of obesity suggests environmental causes Diet rich in fat Low levels of exercise Efforts to restrain eating

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II. Eating: Disorders Western society is obsessed with thinness Eating disorders are seen in young white females Anorexia: self-induced starvation leading to loss of 15% or more of body weight (described first in 1689) Cardiovascular issues (low heart rate and blood pressure) Low metabolism Cessation of menstruation Bulimia: Binge eating followed by purging

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Anorexia Nervosa Mr. Duke’s daughter in St. Mary Axe, in the year 1684, and the Eighteenth year of her Age… fell into a total suppression of her monthly courses from a multitude of Cares and Passions of her mind.. From which time her Appetite began to abate… She wholly neglected to care for herself for two years… (like a skeleton only covered with skin)… Richard Morton (1689)

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III. Sexual Motivation: Hormones Organizational effects: prenatal exposure to androgens alters the neural circuits in brain and spinal cord Adult behavior of androgenized subject is masculine In the absence of androgens, “Nature’s impulse is to create a female…” Activational effects: alteration of adult levels of hormones can alter the intensity of a behavior that is modulated by that hormone

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III. Sexual Motivation: Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation is the direction of attraction for a sexual partner Homosexuality: attraction for a person of the same-sex Twin studies document a biological basis for homosexuality Hormonal responses differ between homosexual and heterosexual men

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IV. Psychological Motives: Achievement Need for Achievement: refers to the need to do well, to succeed, and to avoid failure Persons who have a high level of need for achievement tend to Choose moderately difficult tasks Enjoy being challenged Avoid failure Work more persistently Enjoy success

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Hierarchy of Motives (Figure adapted from A.J. Elliot & M.A. Church, 1977, p 227)

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Chapter Eleven Emotion

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I. Emotion: Two Theories

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I. Emotion: James-Lange Theory of Emotion Cannon’s arguments against the theory: Visceral response are slower than emotions The same visceral responses are associated with many emotions (Î heart rate with anger and joy). Subsequent research provides support: Different emotions are associated with different patterns of visceral activity Accidental transection of the spinal cord greatly diminishes emotional reactivity (prevents visceral signals from reaching brain)

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I. Emotion: Subjective Emotional Experience Emotional intensity varies along a bell curve At the upper end are people with severe personality disorders (too intense anger and sadness) At the lower end are people who appear not to have emotional states “Alexithymia” a condition in which a person does not experience emotional states

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I. Emotion: Happiness Happiness is an emotional state characterized by a positive valence Research shows that happiness is related to cultural values (highest in individualistic cultures, lowest in collectivist cultures) Highly correlated with number of uninterrupted years of democracy in a country Happiness is NOT related to: Gender Age Wealth

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I. Emotion: Wealth and Happiness (Figure adapted from Myers & Diener, 1995, p. 13)

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I. Emotion: Facial Expression There is an evolutionary link between the experience of emotion and facial expression of emotion: Facial expressions serve to inform others of our emotional state Different facial expressions are associated with different emotions Ekman’s research Facial expression can alter emotional experience Engaging in different facial expressions can alter heart rate and skin temperature

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I. Emotion: Gender and Emotional Expression Women experience more intense emotional states are better able to read emotional cues in others express emotions more intensely and openly than do men Gender differences in emotional expression may reflect differing socialization patterns

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I. Emotion: Taxonomy How many basic emotional states? Between 5 and 9 basic states: The common 5 include anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust Additional emotional states include surprise, contempt, shame, guilt, joy, and trust Emotional valence may be related to activity in the nervous system: Positive: activity of dopamine systems Negative: activity of norepinephrine systems

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(Figure adapted from Fischer et al., 1990, p. 90) Taxonomy of Emotion

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I. Emotion: Neuropsychology Dual processing of emotions: Activation of the amygdala produces visceral responses Cortical activation allows for use of memory in understanding emotional stimuli (Figure adapted from LeDoux, 1995)

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I. Emotion: Cognitive Perspectives Plato: “reason must rein in the passions” Schachter and Singer (1962): cognitive judgements are a critical part of emotional experience: Subjects are aroused by an injection of adrenaline and then exposed to anger or happiness cues The emotional cues played a prominent role in emotional experience

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I. Emotion: Schachter-Singer Theory

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I. Emotion: Influences on Cognition Emotional states can alter our cognitive ability Anxiety can reduce working memory capacity by the process of distraction Mood can alter the way we make judgements, inferences, or predictions Mood becomes a part of memory and can alter encoding/retrieval of information Extreme emotional experiences can alter brain structure

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II. Stress Stress: A state that impairs our ability to respond to internal and external demands Stress is a psychobiological process Stress reflects the interaction of the person with their environment Stress responses are organized in stages Alarm: release of adrenaline and activation of the autonomic nervous system Resistance: all systems return to normal Exhaustion: systems begin to fail

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II. Stress: Modern Views Richard Lazarus: stress is a transaction between a person and their environment Primary appraisal: person evaluates situations as benign or stressful Secondary appraisal: person decides how to deal with stress Lazarus identifies three types of stress: Loss: person loses a loved one or a possession Threat: anticipated harm Challenge: opportunity for growth (new job)

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Top Ten Common Hassles 1. Concerns about weight 2. Health of a family member 3. Rising prices of common goods 4. Home maintenance 5. Too many things to do 6. Misplacing or losing things 7. Yard work 8. Property, investments, or taxes 9. Crime 10. Physical appearance (Figure adapted from Kanner et al., 1981, p. 14)

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Stress and Health (Figure adapted from Cohen & Williamson, 1991, p.8)

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II. Stress: Coping Mechanisms Problem-focused: Person attempts to change the situation Try to remove the stressor Plan ways of resolving the situation Seek advice from others on how to change the situation Emotion-focused: Thought alteration: reframe the situation to make it less threatening Alter emotions by exercise or drug use

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II. Stress: Social Support Other persons can provide social support: Two-way communication in which a person can confide their concerns and receive support from others Low social support decreases life span Social support may work by Buffering person against the harmful effects of stress Social support is a positive force that reduces susceptibility to stress

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Chapter Twelve Personality

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I. Personality Personality refers to enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation, and behavior that are expressed in different circumstances The aim of personality research is to Construct general theories of personality Assess individual differences in personality

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II. Psychodynamic Views of Personality: Topographic Freud invoked a role of unconscious processes in the control of behavior Topographical model: argued for 3 levels of consciousness Conflict occurs between the different aspects of consciousness

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II. Psychodynamic Views of Personality: Drive Model Human behavior is motivated by two drives Aggressive Sexual Libido refers to pleasure-seeking and sensuality as well as desire for intercourse

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II. Psychodynamic Views of Personality: Development Libido follows a developmental course during childhood Stages of development Fixed progression of change from stage to stage Notion of fixation at a particular libidinal stage

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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages STAGE AGE CONFLICTS AND CONCERNS

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II. Psychodynamic Views of Personality: Structural Model Id Primary process thinking Ego Secondary process thinking Superego

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II. Psychodynamic Views of Personality: Ego Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes that protect the conscious person from anxiety Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are kept unconscious Denial: person refuses to recognize reality Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable impulses to others

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Ego Defense Mechanisms Reaction formation: person converts an unacceptable impulse into the opposite impulse Sublimation: person converts an unacceptable impulse into a socially acceptable activity Rationalization: person explains away their actions to reduce anxiety

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III. Cognitive-Social Personality Theory Cognitive-social personality theory places emphasis on learned aspects of personality as well as expectations and beliefs of the person Person must encode the situation as relevant Situation must have personal meaning Person must believe in their ability to carry out a behavior

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III. Cognitive-Social Personality Theory

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IV. Trait Theories of Personality Trait: refers to emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies as well as the underlying dimensions that form personality Traits can be measured by Asking others to rate a person Asking the person to fill out a questionnaire How many traits are required? Allport noted some 18,000 traits Cattell argued for 16 distinct traits (factor analysis)

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IV. Trait Theories of Personality: Eysenck’s Personality Types Extroversion/Introversion Neuroticism Psychoticism

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IV. Trait Theories of Personality: Five Factor Model Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

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V. Humanistic Personality Approaches Humanistic personality theorists reject the behaviorist and psychodynamic notions of personality Humanists emphasize the notion that each person has a potential for creative growth The intent is to assist the person in developing to their maximal potential

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V. Humanistic Personality Approaches: Roger’s Person-Centered Approach Rogers emphasized the notion of self-concept Each person has multiple selves: True-self: the core aspect of being False-self: the self that is created by distortions from interpersonal experiences Ideal-self: what the person would like to be

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VI. Existential Personality Approaches Existential personality theories suggest that each person is alone to themselves and must therefore create themselves Sartre argued that we are able to create ourselves Key issues include the importance of subjective experience centrality of the quest for meaning in life danger of losing touch with one’s own feelings danger of failing to remember that we can change ourselves at will

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Chapter Thirteen Physical and Cognitive Development

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Developmental Psychology The focus of developmental psychology is on how humans develop and change over time Change can occur across the life span of the person Cradle to grave developmental psychology Assumes that change is inevitable Change can be continuous or discontinuous

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I. Central Questions in Developmental Psychology Nature and nurture Maturation: Refers to biologically determined changes that follow an orderly sequence Determine the importance of early experiences The notion of “critical periods” Assess whether change is continuous or in qualitative stages

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I. Central Questions in Developmental Psychology The focus of developmental psychology is on change across the life-span Change can refer to the acquisition or the loss of a behavior or function Five year old gains language ability Ninety-five year old loses memory ability Change can occur as Continuous: Refers to a gradual alteration of behavior Discontinuous: Refers to stages of growth that are qualitatively different and that are usually ordered in a fixed sequence

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II. Studying Development Cross-sectional method compares groups of different ages at the same time Useful for assessing age differences Not useful for examining age changes The problem is that each age group (cohort) has different life experiences Longitudinal method compares same group at multiple time points Sequential studies examine different age groups at multiple time points (reduce cohort effects)

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III. Physical Development Prenatal Development: Germinal period (1st 2 weeks after conception) Embryonic period: 3rd to 8th weeks of gestation Fetal period: from 9 weeks to birth

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III. Physical Development Teratogens are environmental agents that harm the fetus (viruses, chemicals) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: If the mother consumes alcohol during pregnancy, the fetus is exposed to the alcohol, which can lead to abnormal physical development and to learning disabilities Crack Cocaine: Fetal exposure to cocaine alters motor and emotional development

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III. Physical Development: Infant Reflexes Reflexes are innate motor responses elicited by critical stimuli Reflexes are adaptive Examples of infant reflexes: Rooting reflex: A touch on the cheek induces the infant to move its mouth toward the source of the touch (helps guide feeding) Sucking reflex: Tactile stimulation of the mouth produces rhythmic sucking

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III. Physical Development Motor Development (Figure adapted from Frankenburg & Dodds, 1967).

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III. Physical Development: Beyond Adolescence Physical growth is mostly complete by the end of adolescence Aging is often associated with a decline of physical abilities Muscle function peaks at 20-30 and then declines Certain mental functions also decline with age Sensory-perceptual functioning Memory Menopause

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IV. Cognitive Development : Orienting reflex refers to the tendency to pay greater attention to novel stimuli than to familiar stimuli. Longer fixation times occur with novel stimuli Sucking reflex: Infants can be trained to suck a pacifier. Sucking rate increases with novel stimuli and decreases to familiar stimuli Brain waves differ between novel and familiar stimuli

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IV. Cognitive Development Infant Sensory Capacities Infants respond with changes in heart rate to loud sounds (even in the womb); hearing is well developed at birth Infant visual perception is poor at birth, but improves to 20/100 by age 6 months Intermodal processing is present at birth: infant turns its eyes toward the source of a sound;

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IV. Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory Piaget’s interest was epistemology: the branch of philosophy concerned with the acquisition of knowledge Piaget argued that children have schemas which are organized patterns of thought or behavior Cognitive development for Piaget involved the modification of intellectual schemas as the child seeks to understand its world

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IV. Cognitive Development The cognitive schemas developed by children must be able to handle new information and situations Piaget proposed 2 intellectual processes: Assimilation: Involves interpreting new information in light of an old schema All 4-legged animals are viewed as a “dog” Accommodation: Process by which old schemas are modified to fit new situations A horse is not a “dog”

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IV. Cognitive Development Sensorimotor 0-2 Object permanence Preoperational 2-7 Symbolic Thought develops Concrete Operational Conservation 7-12 Formal Operational Hypothetical Thinking 12+

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IV. Cognitive Development Object permanence refers to the realization by a child that an object continues to exist even if it cannot be seen Egocentrism refers to a cognitive view in which a child understands the world to have only their view (has great difficulty in understanding the views of others) Conservation: Understanding that the basic properties of an object are constant even if the object changes shape

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IV. Cognitive Development Conservation Tasks

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Cognitive Development as Information Processing Processing speed: Mental quickness increases as children age (levels off at age 15) Knowledge base: Children gain knowledge base with experience; in some arenas they have better ability than adults (cartoons) Automatization: Refers to the ability to perform some tasks automatically Metacognition: “Thinking about thinking”

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V. Cognitive Development in Adulthood Assessing cognition as subjects age has difficulties: Problems with experimental designs (cohorts) Motivational effects may produce what appear to be cognitive deficits Different cognitive aspects may be influenced by aging Sensorimotor aspects may decline Wisdom (accumulated experience) may increase

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V. Cognitive Development in Adulthood Psychomotor slowing increases with age Older subjects require greater time to make a decision in a simple reaction time experiment Changes in memory associated with age: Older subjects have problems with complex working memory tasks Repeating lists backwards Keeping track of cars at a four-way intersection Storage in LTM is not an issue with aging Retrieving information from LTM is more difficult in older subjects

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Seattle Longitudinal Study (Figure adapted from Schaie, 1990, p. 297)

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V. Cognitive Development in Adulthood Intelligence changes with aging but depends on the specific aspect of intelligence that is assessed: Fluid Intelligence: Refers to speed of processing; declines with age Crystallized Intelligence: Refers to the knowledge base accumulated over a lifetime; increases with age Aging can take a toll on specific cognitive abilities, especially if the ability is unused

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(Figure adapted from Horn & Hofer, 1992, p. 79)

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V. Cognitive Development in Adulthood Dementia is a progressive and incurable disorder marked by global disturbances of higher mental functions Only 5% of elderly persons show dementia The majority (80%) retain mental function Some dementias are caused by exposure to environmental toxins Half of dementia cases are related to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) AD is a brain disorder associated with brain damage and loss of acetylcholine neurons critical for memory

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Chapter Fourteen Social Development

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I. Attachment In Infancy: Harlow’s Monkeys

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I. Attachment Bowlby’s Theory: Imprinting Origins: Separation Anxiety 6-7 months

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I. Attachment Measurement Strange Situation experiment: Mother leaves her child (12-18 months of age) alone in a room of toys A stranger enters the room for a while Mother rejoins her child Mary Ainsworth used this paradigm to assess attachment in the child The measure of attachment was the reaction of the child to the mother upon her leaving and returning to the child

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I. Attachment Patterns Securely attached: Child welcomes the mothers return and seeks closeness to her Avoidant: Child ignores the mother Ambivalently attached: Child exhibits anger at the mother while seeking to be close to her Disorganized: Child may approach the other but gaze away from her, and may show odd motor behavior (rocking) and dazed facial expressions

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Adult Attachment An issue is whether childhood attachment patterns are evident in adulthood Researchers find evidence of childhood attachment patterns in adulthood Secure attachment pattern is evident in 60% Avoidant pattern in 25% of adults Anxious attachment is evident in 10% of adults Adult attachment patterns predict Whether people want to have children The attachment pattern of their children How people cope with stressful life events

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I. Attachment Will early attachment problems always result in adult attachment difficulty? Harlow noted that isolated monkeys with poor attachment made for poor parents This infant offspring of an isolated mother were ignored or abused Harlow noted that the poor social skills of an isolate monkey could be helped if the monkey was housed with a normal juvenile monkey who served to teach social skills

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II. Socialization Issues in socialization: Socialization is interactive Socialization is a life-long process Children are biologically prepared for socialization Socialization is both explicit and implicit

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II. Socialization Styles of parenting: Authoritarian: Place a high value on obedience and respect for authority Permissive: Impose minimal controls on their children Authoritative: Enforce standards, but encourage verbal give-and-take Authoritarian parents produce children with low independence, low self-esteem, and an external locus of control

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III. Moral Development Morality refers to the rules that people use to balance the conflicting interests of themselves and others Kohlberg’s views on moral reasoning: Changes in moral reasoning reflect changes in cognitive structures Children actively construct their moral reality Moral development can be assessed using moral dilemmas (“Heinz and the druggist”) Moral development occurs in three stages

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III. Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Stages Level Issues Preconventional Concern on avoiding punishment and obtaining reward Conventional Concern on meeting moral standards learned from others; maintaining law and order Postconventional Concern on abstract, carefully considered principles

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IV. Social Development

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Chapter Fifteen Psychological Disorders

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Labeling of Mental Illness The notion of abnormality carries with it the presumption that we can define what is and in not abnormal Labeling theory argues that diagnoses of abnormality are but labels we use for people who we consider deviant Rosenhan study: “Pseudo”-patients claimed to hear voices and were admitted to various psychiatric hospitals. Rosenhan noted that no hospital detected them as fakes. The study suggests support for labeling theory.

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Psychodynamic Perspective The psychodynamic perspective recognizes three classes of pathology: Neuroses refer to issues in living that involve anxiety (phobias) or interpersonal conflict Personality disorders are chronic and severe disturbances that alter the capacity to work and to love Psychoses refer to marked disturbances of contact with reality These classes form a continuum of functioning from minimal to serious disturbance .

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Biological Perspective on Psychopathology The biological perspective seeks the roots of abnormal behavior within the brain The biological view holds that brain disturbance results in mental changes Gross pathology of the brain: damage to the frontal lobes associated with syphilis Disturbance of neurotransmitter function Schizophrenia as too much dopamine Depression as too little serotonin

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Systems Perspective The systems perspective seeks the roots of abnormality in the broad social context Each person is a member of a social group The group functions as a system and the system parts are interdependent A change in one member may influence other members A father may show evidence of anxiety that is traced to his children: Father is the symptom bearer Son arrested for driving while intoxicated Daughter runs away from home

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Descriptive Diagnosis The current diagnostic system assumes that we can distinguish normal from abnormal Abnormality is reflected in discrete symptoms As in physical illness, symptoms fall into discrete clusters called syndromes Syndromes are assumed to have discrete causes and are to be treated using different therapies This system is based on the medical model

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DSM-IV The American Psychiatric Association published a diagnostic manual that attempts to classify signs and symptoms into syndromes Signs are observable phenomena (temperature) Symptoms are reports from patients (headache) The current edition is termed the DSM-IV The DSM-IV uses a multi-axial system of diagnosis The axes cover symptoms as well as medical conditions, stress, and current level of function

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The Axes of DSM-IV Axis Description I Symptoms that cause distress II Personality disorders and mental retardation III Medical conditions that may be relevant to understanding or treating a psychological disorder IV Psychosocial and environmental problems V Global assessment of functioning (Source: DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994)

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Childhood Disorders Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity Prevalence of ADHD is likely 3-5% of school-aged children, more common in boys ADHD is often treated with Ritalin Conduct Disorder refers to the child who persistently violates rules and norms Prevalence is larger in boys than girls Conduct disorder may reflect a problem in conditioning

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Substance-Related Disorders Substance-Related Disorders refer to continued use of a substance (alcohol) that impairs social and physical functioning Alcoholism is a common substance-related disorder Some 13 million in the USA are alcoholic Alcoholism is the 3rd largest cause of death Heredity plays a large role in alcoholism Children of alcoholics are prone to developing alcoholism Male children are more likely than female children to develop alcoholism

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Nature Versus Nurture in Substance Abuse (Figure adapted from Kendler et al., 2000)

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Schizophrenia Schizophrenia refers to a profound disturbance in human function including: Thought: Illogical thought systems (delusions) and loosening of associations Perception: Presence of hallucinations Language: Word salad, disconnected ideas Affect: Emotion (often flat or absent) Symptoms can be viewed as: Positive: Delusions are an added function Negative: Signal the absence of a function (flat affect)

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Major Types of Schizophrenia Paranoid Catatonic Disorganized Undifferentiated Residual

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Biological Basis of Schizophrenia Diathesis-stress model proposes that some persons develop schizophrenia because of a underlying biological vulnerability(diathesis) that is compounded by stress The heritability of schizophrenia is 50-83% Risk of schizophrenia is 48% in monozygotic, 17% in dizygotic twins, and 9% in siblings Dopamine hypothesis: schizophrenia reflects elevated levels of dopamine in brain Paranoid schizophrenia is induced by chronic treatment with amphetamine, a drug that releases dopamine

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Diathesis-Stress Models of Schizophrenia

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Neural Atrophy in Schizophrenia Neuron loss in brain results in a diminished volume of brain tissue The fluid-filled ventricles enlarge to take up the volume Enlarged ventricles are a common finding in schizophrenia Atrophy of the frontal, temporal, and prefrontal cortex has been noted in schizophrenic patients: reflects brain damage Note that negative symptoms induced by brain cell loss may not respond to drug treatment

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Mood Disorders Mood disorders are characterized by disturbance of emotion and mood state Mania refers to an excessive degree of happiness, and a belief the person can do anything Major Depressive Disorder refers to a long-term episode of intense sadness, loss of appetite, and difficulty in sleeping Duration may be 5 months or more Women are twice as likely to have major depression (incidence is 2-3% for men and 5-9% for women)

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Mood Disorders, Continued Dysthymia is a less severe type of depression Symptoms of dysthymia are evident over longer time periods (two years) but are not as debilitating as those of major depression Bipolar disorder involved alternating episodes of mania and depression Lifetime risk is low (0.5-1.6%) Appears more often in upper classes Bipolar patients achieve high levels of education

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Theories of Depression Depression may reflect a biological vulnerability and an environmental basis The heritability of depression is about 30% Twin studies show a clear role of genetics in depression Effective antidepressant drugs alter serotonin activity (Prozac blocks the reuptake of serotonin) Cognitive theories of depression note that depresses people have negative cognitive schemas about themselves

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Beck’s Negative Triad (Figure adapted from Beck, 1976, p 256)

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Anxiety Disorders Types of anxiety disorders: Phobias refer to an irrational fear of an object or situation Social phobia: a fear of being in a public situation Panic Disorders are intense attacks of anxiety that are justified by the situation Agoraphobia refers to anxiety associated with being in places or situations from which it might be difficult to escape (e.g. an elevator)

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder An obsession is a persistent thought that cannot be controlled “Did I lock the door?” A compulsion is an intentional behavior (ritual) that occurs in response to a thought Check the door (22 times) Key aspect is that OC persons experience anxiety if they are unable to complete their ritual

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Personality Disorders Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic Cluster C: Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive

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Chapter Sixteen Treatment of Psychological Disorders

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Varieties of Psychological Treatment Psychodynamic Cognitive-behavioral Humanistic Family and marital Biological

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I. Psychodynamic Approach The psychodynamic approach was created by S. Freud Mental symptoms reflect unconscious conflicts that induce anxiety Insight refers to the situation in a person comes to understand their unconscious conflicts Therapeutic change requires an alliance (relationship) between the patient and therapist

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Psychodynamic Techniques The goal of psychodynamic therapy is to achieve insight into unconscious conflicts Free Association refers to a technique in which the patient is encouraged to say whatever comes to mind to reveal the unconscious processes of the patient Interpretation: Therapist interprets the thoughts, and feelings of the patient in order to reveal the hidden conflicts and motivations Analysis of transference: Patients bring into therapy their past troubled relationships; these are transferred to the therapist

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II. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies Cognitive-behavioral therapies focus on the current behaviors of a person Emphasis is on the present rather than the past Cognitive-Behavioral therapists are very directive Therapy duration is short-term rather than years long Initial focus is on a detailed behavioral analysis: focus is on the problem behavior and the stimuli associated

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Behavior Therapies Classical conditioning techniques can alter emotional responses Systematic desensitization: Patient is encouraged to confront a feared stimulus (snake) while in a relaxed state Therapist trains relaxation Patient constructs an image hierarchy While relaxing, patient imagines the least fearful of the images in their hierarchy (e.g. being on the planet as a snake) Exposure: Patient is exposed to the stimulus that they fear (locked in a room full of snakes)

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II. Cognitive-Behavior Therapies Operant Conditioning Techniques Modeling and Skills Training

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III. Humanistic, Group and Family Therapies: Cognitive Therapies Rational Emotive Therapy focuses on the hurtful thought patterns of the patient Ellis’s theory suggests that pathology results when persons adopt illogic in response to life situations Therapist notes illogical and self-defeating thoughts and teaches alternative thinking that promotes rational thought

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Gestalt Therapies Gestalt therapists emphasize that losing touch with ones feelings in order to meet social obligations is the root of mental disorder Focus of gestalt therapy is to have people focus on their current feelings Empty-chair technique: Therapist places an empty chair next to the client and asks them to imagine that the object of their emotion is actually sitting in the chair. The client then is asked to direct their conversation to the chair

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III. Humanistic, Group and Family Therapies Client-Centered Therapy: Unconditional Positive Regard Group Therapy; Self-help Groups Family Therapies, Couples Therapy

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Eclectic Therapy and Schizophrenia (Figure adapted from Herz et al., 2000, p 280.)

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IV. Biological Treatments The Medical Model views abnormal behavior as reflecting a biological disorder Usually localized within the brain Involving either brain damage or a disruption of the neurotransmitter processes of the brain Person is viewed as a patient, treated by doctors in a mental hospital Therapies tend to be physical in nature Drugs (Pharmacotherapy) Surgical alteration of brain (Psychosurgery)

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IV. Biological Treatments Psychotropic medications are drugs that act on the brain to alter mental function Prior to 1956, schizophrenia was virtually untreatable with many patients confined for life in mental hospitals Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) was found to reduce severity of psychotic thought, allowing people to live outside of mental institutions

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Impact of Chlorpromazine on Institutionalization (Figure adapted from Davis, 1985)

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Psychotropic Mechanisms of Action Psychotropic drugs can alter behavior via: An interaction with neurotransmitters in brain Some release specific transmitters Some block the reuptake of transmitters Some interact with postsynaptic receptors Some may act within neuron cells A placebo effect Subjects believe in the efficacy of the drug and show an actual change in function (analgesia or relief from pain shows moderate placebo effects)

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Neurotransmitter Interactions .

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Antipsychotic Medications Schizophrenia can be viewed as composed of: Positive Symptoms: Presence of hallucinations Negative Symptoms: Absence of affect Antipsychotic medications refer to drugs that alleviate schizophrenia Antipsychotic medications are more effective for the positive symptoms than for negative symptoms of schizophrenia

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Dopamine and Schizophrenia The positive symptoms of schizophrenia reflect too much brain dopamine activity Antipsychotic drugs are effective antagonists of dopamine receptors (block the action of dopamine) Drugs such as amphetamine release dopamine from terminals; too much amphetamine exposure can induce a psychotic state in humans Negative schizophrenic symptoms may reflect brain damage enlarged ventricles)

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Antidepressant Medications Depression reflects a disturbance of mood, sleep, and appetite Psychotropic antidepressant drugs can lift depression (require 3-4 weeks for effect) Tricylic antidepressants: Act by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors: MAO degrades transmitters; drugs that inhibit MAO allow the transmitter to work for longer periods Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: Prozac blocks the reuptake of serotonin

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Antianxiety Medications Drugs such as Valium increase the activity of the transmitter GABA to dampen the neural activity of the brain Valium is useful in the short-term treatment of anxiety Antianxiety medications can result in drug dependence

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Electroconvulsive Therapy Antidepressant drugs require 3-4 weeks to take action on mood; the person may be at risk for suicide or is not responding to drug treatment Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) refers to the intentional induction of a brain seizure by shock administered to either or both hemispheres ECT produces immediate improvement in mood (explanation is unknown) Side effects of ECT include memory loss

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Psychosurgery Psychosurgery refers to the intentional damage of the brain to alter behavior In contrast to neurosurgery, which refers to alteration of the brain to alter a known medical issue (e.g. remove a tumor or a blood clot) Trephining: Ancient skulls show evidence of holes drilled as if to release evil spirits Lobotomy: Surgical procedure used by Egas Moniz to “calm” agitated patients Side effects include loss of frontal lobe function

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Chapter Eighteen Interpersonal Processes

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I. Relationships Factors that contribute to attraction: Proximity Interpersonal rewards: social exchange Similarity Physical Attractiveness

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I. Relationships Walster and Walster (1978) suggest that love is either of two types: Passionate love: intensely emotional and physical Companionate love: deep affection, friendship, and emotional intimacy

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I. Relationships: Sexual Strategies Males Can have large number of offspring with many females Males have 2 different strategies: Short-term: seek young fertile female Long-term: seek committed relationship with sexual access Men prefer young females Females Have few offspring with major investment in each Females have a single strategy: Use short-term liaisons to assess and attract males Women will prefer older males with resources

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Maintaining Relationships Relationships can form and dissolve over time Maintaining a relationship requires: Evaluation of the costs of staying in the relationship Investment and commitment Overlooking your partners faults (and hoping that they reciprocate...) Undervaluing the attractiveness of other potential partners

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II. Altruism Ethical Hedonism: acts of altruism are really selfish acts that benefit the actor Emotional satisfaction Reduction of negative feelings in the actor Reciprocal altruism: natural selection favors animals that are altruistic if the benefit to each is greater than the cost of altruism

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II. Altruism Bystander Intervention: Darley and Latane (1968) Diffusion of Responsibility

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Model of Bystander Intervention (Figure adapted from Darley &Latane, 1968, pp. 70-71)

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III. Aggression Aggression refers to the intentional injury of another person Aggression can occur in many different contexts Inter-male aggression: fighting between males Maternal aggression: directed towards strangers by mother Instrumental aggression: aggression that serves an end (e.g. dog trained to attack) Predation: violence designed to obtain food Sexual aggression: usually directed at females by a male

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Theories of Aggression Psychodynamic view: Emphasizes the innate aspect of aggression Aggression is seen as a drive that must be discharged (catharsis) Shame is a primary trigger for an episode of aggression Evolutionary view: All animals display the capacity to harm or kill other members of their species Aggression is a strategy evoked by stimuli that threaten reproductive success

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Psychobiology of Aggression Aggression is controlled by the brain Can be evoked by electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus and the amygdala Lesions of the amygdala produce a tame animal Aggression is modulated by hormones Seasonal variations in testosterone Deer fighting during mating season Requires prenatal hormone exposure and brain organization

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Neural Control of Aggression

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IV. Social Influence The mere presence of others can alter human behavior Social facilitation: the presence of others can facilitate performance (noted in rats, cockroaches, and humans) Amount of food consumed during a meal Winding a fishing reel

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Obedience Critical issue: Why do humans obey orders that cause injury or death to others? Nazi Germany and My Lai, Vietnam Obedience: compliance to the orders of authority Milgram’s Obedience study: Person is asked to deliver shocks to a learner when the learner makes mistakes in a test Shocks range from 15-450 volts The learner stops responding after 300 volts 66% of subjects went to 450 volts...

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Factors that Influence Obedience Proximity of the learner: subjects were less likely to use high levels of shock when the learner was in the same room Proximity to the experimenter: subjects were more likely to disobey when the experimenter was remote When other subjects dissented to give shock, subjects were more likely to refuse to shock the learner

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Effect of Distance On Obedience (Figure adapted from Milgram, 1965, pp. 63)

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Conformity Conformity refers to a change in attitude or behavior in response to a group norm Is distinct from compliance Asch Studies: Subjects were asked to judge line lengths while working in a group of subjects As other subjects consistently gave wrong answers, the issue is whether subjects conformed (gave the same wrong answer) Subjects often conformed to others

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Asch line-Judging Task (Figure adapted from Asch, 1955, pp. 193)

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Group Processes A group is a collection of persons whose actions influence other group members Issues that influence group behavior: Norms: refer to standards of behavior Norms can be explicit or implict Status: reflects the power a person holds Roles: reflect shared expectations about how group members are to behave Zimbardo prison study is an example of how persons can take on roles, sometimes to an extreme level

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Leadership Leaders exert great influence over a group Leaders have differing styles: Autocratic: leader makes the decisions Democratic: leader allows the group to make decisions but is also involved in the process Laissez-faire: does not intervene in the group Recent theory emphasizes 2 factors in leadership: Task orientation: focus is on efficiency Relationship orientation: focus is on employee feelings

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